Editor’s Note: The explosion of knowledge leads to curriculum overload. Common methods to limit curriculum size include moving knowledge and skills to lower grade levels, and weeding obsolete and irrelevant materials from the curriculum. It is refreshing to see essential knowledge and skills taught in a more efficient and effective manner. This research develops math reading skills to a higher level by appropriate use of animation and interactivity. This is creative teaching and learning inspired by technology

Potential of Using Web-based Animated and Interactive Maps
in teaching Geography

Arumugam Raman

Malaysia

Abstract

Students at upper secondary school are experiencing difficulty with mastery of geographic skills such as identification and interpretation of geographical information and also map reading. This trend may occur due to the nature of geography discipline that requires creative and critical thinking. Web-based technologies may have the potential to transform the way geography education is delivered to secondary school students. It may enhance teaching and learning process in the classroom and attract students to geography as a discipline. The aim of this study is to find whether the students trained to read animated and interactive maps via web are able to perform better than students using printed static maps in problem solving and explaining symbols. Students in form four were tested on three aspects of geography: map reading, feature recognition and geographical concepts. Students were not randomly assigned to instruction but randomly assigned for post-test. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that students performing using animated maps outperformed students using computer delivered static maps. This study reveals that students using web-based animated and interactive maps exhibit stronger understanding of geographical concepts and improve their map-reading skill.

Keywords: Geography, Maps, animation, Interactive Maps

Introduction

The World Wide Web (WWW) is the most recent and an interesting medium to present and disseminate geospatial data. The information on the Web is virtually platform-independent, unrivalled in its capacity to reach many users at minimal costs and easy to update frequently. The Web puts new life into the map as a metaphor. Maps can be defined as graphic representations of our environment. However, web maps are maps presented in a web browser which allows for dynamic and interactive dissemination of geospatial data and offering new mapping techniques compared to traditional printed maps.

Web maps classified into two main categories such as static and dynamic web maps. Each of these categories subdivided into view only and interactive maps. Most of view only maps are scanned and put as bitmaps on the WWW. The WWW offers several options to display dynamic maps via animations. Interactive dynamics can be created by using programmes such as Java, Java Scripts, Visual Basic, or via virtual environments such as VRML panoramas that allow three dimensional viewing.

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that students trained to use Web-based animated and interactive maps have greater success in solving problems than students using static maps. Most of the students at schools have difficulty in mastering geographic skills such as identification and interpretation of geographical information and map reading. These problems could be solved by introducing educational technology tools in teaching and learning of geography. Technology may help these students acquire better understanding of map reading and geographical concepts. Web-based map reading may motivate the students to learn, to enjoy learning, and stimulate eagerness to learn more. Kozma and Croninger (1992) described several ways in which technology might help address cognitive, motivational and social needs of so called “at-risk” students. In 1965, renowned learning theorist, Robert Gagne, proposed the need to gain the attention of the learner as a critical first “event” in providing optimal conditions for instruction of any kind. In addition students find strong motivation in the feeling that they are in control of their own learning (Arnone & Grobowski, 1991; Relan, 1992). Further, Web-based activities make themselves cooperative, work in small-groups, develop hypermedia products, and conduct research projects using video discs and multimedia.

Gregg (1994) distinguishes among three methods of drawing information from maps such as map reading, map interpreting, and inferential use of maps. She argues that map reading involves retrieving information explicitly included on the map. According to Gregg interpreting merely integration of two pieces of information presented on the map to determine the connections and patterns. Mennecke, Crossland, and Killingworth (2000) argue that map reading occurs when reader has fully internalized the map to support problem solving. Peterson (1995) offers support to Mennecke, Crossland and Killingworth’s view and suggesting that humans store information from maps by creating associations and store the information to be used later. In short, map reading occurs if a student able to identify, gather, record, organise and interpret geographical information from a map.

Piaget (1956) assumed that children’s cognitive development depends on interaction with one’s physical and social environment. He describes a set of skills necessary for full development of spatial understanding and transfer to graphical representations. Bruner’s (1966) cognitive theory expands and complements Piaget’s theory that students development in three stages towards mastery of map reading. In Bruner’ model, students must go through a period of concrete interaction with space, move to ionic. Bruner felt that students were more likely to understand and remember concepts they had discovered in their course of their own exploration. Interactive animated maps allow students to interact and explore the maps individually.

This study takes into account the above learning theories and is designed according to students’ ability in reading maps. Two types of maps were used to assess students’ performance during the experimental testing. They are static maps and animated and interactive maps. Static maps present geographic information in a single image. A single image is unable to provide adequate information to support a decision on a particular geographic issue. Muir (1985) suggests multiple pages of related images may enhance learning. Computer-delivered, interactive maps might open with a blank map of an area of interest and offer the student the opportunity to overlay area and line data such as topography, vegetation, political boundaries, and print maps or the town and the cities. Peterson’s (1995) suggested model for usefulness of interactivity in cartography takes into account the capacities of human mind in manipulating mental representations of cartographic information.

Assessment of students’ map reading must measure students’ ability to apply the techniques they learn into novel problem solving with unfamiliar maps (Jan D. McCoy, 2003). The assessment used in this study challenges a student’s ability to solve problems through evaluation and explanation. Kane, Crooks, & Cohen (1999) states, “If we want to assess the students’ abilities to formulate their own conclusions…and state these conclusions, it seems essential that we give them some time to develop their own ideas and an opportunity to state these ideas in their own words.” Map reading occurs only when the reader has sufficiently internalized the map to support decision making and problem solving (Mennecke, Crossland, and Killingworth, 2000). In this study the students were involved in three different forms of assessment. The difference is found in the supportive materials used rather than questions presented. One group used web-based animated, interactive maps, another group used computer delivered static maps, and the third group used printed maps.

Gershmehl (1990) distinguishes between seven types of computer animation that are applicable to cartography. These seven can be grouped into two categories: frame-based animation and cast-based animation. The two differ in how the animation is created. In frame-based animation the individual frames do not share common elements, whereas with cast-based animation foreground objects can be moved against a background.

Methodology

In this study the researcher used frame based animations which were developed by using Macromedia Flash MX. The researcher designed the lesson according to the latest form for geography syllabuses. The contents are assessed by experienced teachers from both control and treatments groups.

A quasi-experimental design was used in this study. Four existing intact form 4 classrooms of sixteen and seventeen year old studentsfrom the urban schools were used as experimental and control groups. One group of students (2 classrooms, 46 students) received instructions using web-based animated maps while remainder (2 classrooms, 52 students) of students received instruction using computer-delivered static maps. The first group is the experimental group and the second is the control group. All maps regardless of treatment of condition were assessed via a computer interface to avoid novelty influence. The instruction was given by researcher to the whole group using Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector. This enabled students to view the instructions simultaneously. All students used computers with access to the maps to give them control over their display. The researcher facilitates the classroom activities. This approach is to ensure that all students got equal and adequate exposure to the content.

Both groups used maps depicting three geographical skills appropriate to form 4 students’. Three different types of maps were used to identify symbols, map-reading and to interpret geographical information.  The first map contains different types of symbols. These symbols categorized into five types such as dot symbols, line symbols, area symbols, pictorial symbols and abbreviations. Students in both control and experiment groups are expected to identify these symbols after the instruction. The experimental group will use th web-based animated map whereas thecontrol group will use computer delivered static map.  The second map is related on interpreting geographical information. In this map students will learn to draw sketch maps after the instruction. A series of animated sketch maps will be presented via web to enable the experimental group to read and identify geographical information on the map. Whilst the control group will use computer delivered static map. The third map is used to identify and interpret geographical information on the presented map. The control group and experimental group were asked questions related ton interpreting and gathering geographical information.

Pre-test comparisons determined initial equivalence of the two groups in prior use of web-based animated and interactive maps and computer-delivered static maps. Their scores were compared across groups using an assessment both declarative and procedural knowledge (Alexander, Schallert, & Hare, 1991) in geography. Count in each group by gender is presented in Table 1.

In the pre-test, students were presented with a series of ten questions to identify symbols from the map of the local place. These questions were posed in multiple-choice format. Next, the students were asked to sketch maps related to information on the map such as drainage, relief and communications. These two portions of assessment addressed the skills identified by Gregg (1994). The first task reflects students map reading as simple recognition of symbols on the map. The second addresses skills involved in the map interpretation skill. The third portion of the pre-test, fifteen matching questions, requires students to match terms and their definitions. This was essentially used to grant a base line score to students performed poorly on the other two tasks.

Table 1
Counts Each Group by Gender

A post-test was administered to determine differences among the two assessment groups. The questions were designed to measure map reading skill, feature recognition and interpreting geographical information

Results

The pre-tests individual questions’ reliability measured. Each question was correlated, using Pearson’s R (Garson, 2003), to the total scores of each student. The map reading and geographical sub-tests showed a moderate relationship between map reading items and geographical concepts respectively. All correlations are positive and significant indicating moderate to strong correlations between items and their respective subset totals. Another test of internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated at 0.79. Table 2, shows the relationship between items and total score on the pre-test for Map Reading, Feature Recognition and Geographical Concepts.

Table 2
Relationship Between the Sub-tests and Total score on Pre-test

*All correlations are significant at the 0.01 alpha level (n = 98)

Inter-correlations among sub-tests showed in Table 3. Most of the indicators show moderate relationship among the sub-tests and total score. Inter-correlations of 0.3 to 0.7 are regarded acceptable (Presley, Austin, & Jacobs, 2000). Therefore, pre-test’s individual questions are reliable for this study.

Students were grouped by both instruction and by assessment type for analysis of the pretest. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) compared performance as suggested by Keppel and Zedeck (1989). The results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3
Multivariate analysis of variance for pre-test sub-tests

Indicators in the table show that no results are significant at the alpha = .05 level (n = 92)

Once intervention was completed, post-test was correlated to overall scores to determine reliability of the individual questions. As in the pre-test, results were grouped into three sub-tests scores. Table 3 shows all correlations are moderate to strong and all significant at the .05 alpha level.

Table 3
Relationship Between the Sub-tests and Total score on Post-test

*All correlations are significant at the 0.01 alpha level (n = 98)

Table 4, shows the output of the study indicating student performance on sub-tests of the post-test by student assignment to group.

From  the table we conclude that students were using animated maps for assessment task, regardless of their instructional condition, outperformed students using static maps for assessments in the map reading, feature recognition, and geographical concepts sub-tests.

Table 4
Students Performance on sub-tests of the post-test by group

Post-test scores were analysed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The MANOVA identifies the portion of the variance due do instructional condition, assessment condition and each of the sub-tests. The results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5
Multivariate analysis of Variance of post-test results

                   *Significant at the .05 alpha level

As shown in table, the three sub-tests were treated as dependent variables with assignment to assignment and assignment to instruction used as fixed factors. The map reading score is the only significant item in this MANOVA when analysed for assessment type.

Discussion

The results prove that students who trained to use animated maps out-performed students trained to use static maps. The results also indicated that those students attempting to learn and address questions about one of the problems were more successful when using animated maps. However we cannot totally deny the contribution of static maps in the teaching and learning process. Learners have used static maps for a long time to solve many geographical problems they encountered. New technologies may enhance the learning process in the field of geography as used in this study. In this study, web based animated, interactive maps appear to help student mastery of map delivered-content.

There are number of factors that might have mediated the findings in this study such as the medium (i.e. the computer as a delivery system), students’ previous experience both with computer and maps, web applications, students’ motivation for success, the content presented in the maps both instruction and assessment, efficacy of the materials, and quality of the measures.  Each of these factors may have impact but isolating each and determining individual impacts are beyond the scope of this study. However efforts were made to control for these factors while others were not controlled because of their elusive nature. Randomization during assessment was used to control for variation in student experience, perception with both computers and maps in problem solving.

The researchers as geography lecturers made careful consideration on quality and appropriateness of the measures after reviewing these materials with experienced secondary school teachers. Students’ past experience and perceptions were not measured but entirely variable since most of them came from different backgrounds and places. The first variable, motivation, is difficult to measure as is students’ map management. Nevertheless, it appears that students using web-based animated, interactive maps were less effected by a motivation problem.

Another threat to this study is the short duration of the intervention. This was proven by the students’ performance on the geographical concepts. Performance may have been effected because students were aware that there was no personal gain on the post-test. In short, there is no relation between performance and subject grade.

Even though here are  limitations, as discussed above, it is important to recognize the outcome of the study. Web based animated, interactive maps are easily accessible so that even students who have not been trained to use them are more successful in addressing map reading exercises. They accurately identify map features regardless of the map type used for assessment.

Conclusion

This study needs further investigation on the impact of web-based map reading. A transition from static maps toward web-based animated, interactive maps for geography instruction in secondary schools should be advocated and pursued. This move would significantly improve performance of students as they attempt to read maps and solve spatial and temporal problems.

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About the Author

Dr. Arumugam Raman is Senior Lecturer in the College of Arts and Sciences at the Universiti Utara Malaysia in Kedah Darulaman, MALAYSIA

Email: arumugam@uum.edu.my