Editor’s Note:  Suitably designed video games are excellent learning tools. I remember my children playing adventure games such as Odyssey on their Apple II computer. In 1982, I studied the flourishing PC industry in the role of a technical writer with a particular interest in graphics and what became video games. In 1996, the Ngee Ann Polytechnic in Singapore shared its facilities and students with makers of computer games to enriching their teaching programs. Over the next decade, excellent software for interactive graphic and video presentation was developed. Flash and related software accelerated the process for students and small budget producers. Among others, the University of Southern California Integrated video games into their School of Cinematic Arts program of study. Educational Video Games have not enjoyed the commercial success of the home product, but the capability exists for profound learning experiences.

Video Games in the Classroom:
Pre- and in-service teachers' perceptions of games in the K-12 classroom

Raymond S. Pastore and David A. Falvo

USA

Abstract

Games are no longer played just 'for fun', rather, they are seen as learning tools that can capture students' interest and keep their attention. As a result, educators have been experimenting with these virtual environments to examine their place in the K-12 classroom. This study sought to examine both pre-and in-service teachers' perceptions of gaming in the classroom environment.  Based on the literature review an 18-question Likert-scale survey was developed to coincide with traits of gaming on student learning and classroom use. 98 participants (53 In-service and 45 Pre-service teachers) completed the survey and four open-ended questions. Findings from this study revealed that both pre- and in-service teachers felt that gaming is a good use of technology for enhancing learning and motivating students. However, only around half of the participants indicated that they have or intend to use gaming in their teaching. Nevertheless, a majority of both pre- and in-service teachers felt that gaming in the classroom would grow in the next 5 years. It is our hope that results of this study will help fill a gap in the literature on gaming in the K-12 environment.

Introduction

The use of video games in the classroom has increased substantially in the last decade (Simpson, 2005; Squire, 2005).  Many agree that games can support learning and it has been well documented that the use of games and simulations for training dates back to the war games of the 1600s where armies and navies played games to prepare soldiers and leaders for combative situations (Gredler, 2004; Shubik, 1975). Much like war games of the past, computer games engage students in virtual worlds where they can apply their knowledge, skills, and thinking in virtual situations. Games are defined as "competitive exercises in which the objective is to win and players must apply subject matter or other relevant knowledge in an effort to advance in the exercise and win" (Gredler, 2004, p. 571).

In recent years the video gaming industry has exploded. The NPD Group estimates that video game sales reached $21.8 billion in 2008, a 19% increase from the previous year (Nawaz, 2009).  In addition to the increase in growth and popularity, research has shown that video games can be as effective as tutorials and drills for transfer of learning and can improve motivation and efficiency, while being safe, convenient, and controllable over real experiences. (Alessi and Trollip, 2001). Additionally, games have been shown to capture students' attention and teach them in a manner that they find enjoyable (Squire, 2005). However, much of the research on the effectiveness of gaming on learning is inconclusive at this point (Fletcher and Tobias, 2006). Potential reasons include: each game is unique (i.e., objectives, technology, look/feel, target audience, etc.), there are a limited in number of empirical studies on the topic, and many of the studies are either anecdotal or hypothetical (Ke, 2008). Nonetheless, these technologies have much potential in education and are increasingly being implemented by teachers for classroom use (Squire, Giovanetto, Devane, and Shree, 2005). While gaming is becoming more popular in K-12 education, scant research has examined how educators perceive it's use in the classroom (Can and Cagiltay, 2006). Understanding teachers' attitudes towards gaming could prove beneficial, thus, there is a growing need for research on this topic.

Computer and Video Games as Learning Tools

Recent studies suggest that computer games can be effective for teaching and learning (Freitas and Griffiths, 2008). For example, Tuzun et al. (2009) examined how video games could be used as the basis for teaching twenty-four, 5th and 6th grade students, world continents and countries. The study found that the geography game led to student learning - similar to traditional teaching methods, and increased motivation. The authors noted that students became less focused on grades and became more independent when working in the game environment. Ke (2008) conducted a case study on computer gaming for math learning. The results of this five-week case study showed that students developed positive attitudes towards math learning, however, there was no significant effect on test performance when compared to traditional teaching methods.  Similar findings, concluding that games can be just as effective as traditional teaching methods, have been reported throughout the literature (Dempsey, Rasmussen, and Lucassen, 1996; Tuzun, 2007).

In addition to studies on games for learning, researchers have explored the principles of game design (Foss, 2009) . For example, Munoz-Rosario and Widmeyer (2009) studied the design principles for constructivist gaming environments. The researchers observed and tested the interactive use of five Massivily Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs). Their work concludes that the constructs of social negotiation, inquiry learning, reflective thinking, authenticity of learning, and ease of use are essential for effective educational games. Additional studies on game design have found that well designed games should include a fantasy environment, player control, goals, rules, elements of competition, and be attractive (Dempsey et al., 1996; Dickey, 2007; Dondlinger, 2007). An educational computer game that combines these features with an intended learning outcome should be most desirable to educators seeking to implement a game for classroom use.

Perceptions of Gaming in the classroom

While the literature base on teachers' perceptions of gaming in the classroom is limited, there have been several studies that have attempted to examine the topic. For instance, Can and Cagiltay (2006) examined 116 pre-service teachers' perceptions of gaming on classroom use in Turkey. They utilized a survey format and found that pre-service teachers believe that games have value and purpose in the K-12 classroom. Additionally, they found that most participants planned to utilize gaming in their teaching. The participants also highlighted some disadvantages to classroom gaming, which included poor classroom management and questions about the effectiveness of current video games as learning tools. The authors suggest that further study of teachers actually in the classroom is needed to confirm their findings. Scrader, Zheng, and Young (2006) found similar results in their survey, which included 203 pre-service teachers. They found that pre-service teachers value games in the classroom, yet feel that current video games, such as massive multiplayers are not good learning tools. Again, this study did not include teachers currently in the classroom, rather, it's participants were pre-service teachers.

Much is known about game design and use, however, little research has examined pre- and in-service teachers' perceptions of gaming, thus, we propose that the question still remains: What are pre- and in-service teachers' perceptions of gaming in the classroom? More research is needed to determine how games can efficiently and effectively support learning. Research confirms that games are successful for learning, they provide a new dimension of integration into the classroom, and many students develop positive learning attitudes when using games. Because teachers are often the gatekeepers of what technological tools are used in their classrooms, it is important to understand their perceptions and attitudes about how games might help them to teach and help their students to learn (Can and Cagiltay, 2006).

Method

Participants
In total, 98 participants completed the survey.  The population consisted of 53 in-service (currently teachers) and 45 pre-service (students in progress of their teaching degree) teachers from a mid-atlantic university. The in-service teachers were pooled from three graduate level educational technology classes. The pre-service teachers were pooled from three undergraduate educational technology classes. There were a total of 30 males and 68 females. The mean age of participants was 26 years old. Additionally, participants were asked if they had used or were interested in using games in the classroom - 91% responded yes.

Materials and Procedures

A survey was developed to help answer the important question uncovered during a review on the literature on gaming: What are pre- and in-service teachers perceptions of gaming in the classroom? The survey consisted of 22 questions (18 Likert scale and four open-ended questions). The survey instrument was developed to reflect the review of literature in this study and was reviewed by content experts for validity. The Likert scale questions asked participants how strongly they agreed or disagreed on statements about the use of gaming in the classroom and was based on a 5 point scale. The Likert-scale survey was designed to examine game design, learning, and use. A reliability analysis of the Likert-scale questions revealed a Chronbach’s Alpha of .902.

The four open-ended questions asked participants: 1) How do you define gaming? 2) What are the advantages of gaming as a classroom tool? 3) What are the disadvantages of gaming as a classroom tool? 4) Do you have other thoughts about gaming as a classroom tool? These were designed to help qualify findings from the Likert-scale questionnaire.

Participants took this survey online during class, and their responses were submitted electronically. Participants were first presented with a demographic survey, followed by the Likert-scale questions, and finally were given the open-ended questions.

Results

Descriptive statistics for each group (pre- and in- service teachers) were calculated via SPSS. The descriptive statistics are displayed in Table 1.

Likert-scale analysis

The following 18 Likert-scale questions were aimed at analyzing participants' perceptions of games on learning, use, and design.

Results of the descriptive analysis revealed that a majority of both in-service (85%) and pre-service (84%) teachers agreed that gaming was a good use of technology for learning. They also both agreed (in- 85%, pre- 86%) that gaming enhances students’ learning. Accordingly, they both agreed (91%) that gaming motivates students. Three quarters of the participants agreed that gaming is more effective with today’s generation of students.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics for participants' perceptions of games
on learning, use, and design.

- Likert-scale ranged from 1-5 (1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Disagree, 5 = Strongly Disagree)

A majority of pre- (88%) and in- (98%) service teachers agreed that visual representations, such as pictures and diagrams, enhance student learning. Pre- (80%) and in- (92%) service teachers agreed that games are an effective way to incorporate visual representations into learning.

Participants agreed that prior knowledge (pre- 82%; in- 88%) is required for games to be effective for learning. Additionally, participants felt that games should be designed to address learning styles (pre- 81%; in- 90%), games must be user-friendly (pre- 90%; in- 98%), winning should be based on knowledge and skills rather than random factors (pre- 80%; in- 83%), games should address important content and concepts rather than trivia and facts (pre- 71%; in- 79%), and that students should be recognized as winners if learning takes place (pre- 77%; in- 73%).

However, only about half (pre- 59%; in- 49%) of the participants felt that students should not lose points for incorrect answers. Additionally, a majority of participants (pre- 75%; in- 91%) felt that games should be designed based on what is known about learning and that the dynamics of the game should not distort learning (pre- 82%; in- 98%).

Around half of the participants (pre- 60%; in-55%) stated that they have or intend to use gaming in their teaching. However, a majority of the participants believe that gaming is a valuable use of instructional time (pre- 71%; in- 77%). Additionally, more in-service (92%) teachers felt that gaming use will grow in the next 5 years than did pre-service (73%) teachers.

Open-Ended Questions

The Open-Ended questions were designed to help qualify findings from the Likert-scale questionnaire. The open ended question were coded and analyzed for common themes using the constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Results of the open ended questions helped confirm the findings from the literature review and Likert-scale survey.

Question 1: How do you define gaming?

Pre-service teachers defined gaming as a tool used for winning, competition, and learning.  For instance, a participant mentioned, “Competing to win using knowledge or skills that have been taught prior to playing the game.” In-service teachers defined gaming as a means to develop a goal/learning strategy.  Example responses from the in-service teachers included, “Gaming is the use of traditional games or web-designed activites that are adapted to fit the learning goals in an instructional setting. Gaming allows students to work together and embraces the concept that students have diverse learning styles that instructors should consider when delivering course instruction” and “Interactive strategic exercises oriented toward a specific goal, the ability to interact, have fun and at the same time learn new ideas.”

Question 2: What are the advantages of gaming as a classroom tool?

Pre-service teachers consistently indicated that the advantages of games were that they are fun, motivating, and involve learning/teamwork/participation. Responses included, “Gaming allows students who may not participate in traditional classroom discussion to participate, give feedback, take on leadership roles, etc. It is also a way to engage students in a non-traditional and more exciting manner” and “Collaborative learning, teamwork (especially using something like Jeopardy). Quick and easy to use - good for retention or reinforcement of certain concepts.” In-Service teachers stressed the idea that games are exciting and motivating. Sample responses included, “Most students love to be on the computer, therefore it would keep their interest and help them learn” and “Gaming as a classroom tool could be a way of reaching all students. It will interest students that are proficient in computers; the students that do not have computers at home will more than likely want to use the computer more and enjoy more technologically advanced presentations.

Question 3: What are the disadvantages of gaming as a classroom tool?

Pre-service teachers indicated that a disadvantage to using games in the classroom was that they were a distraction to students. Sample responses included, “Sometimes students can get carried away. They might become easily distracted” and “Some students may get carried away with the available medium of technology. Many students are linked into web based networking, such as Facebook, Myspace, Friendster, etc., so instead of staying on task they may be tempted to visit these sites, thus abandoning their classwork.” In-service teachers reported similar responses stating that games can be a distraction and that they should not replace lectures. Example responses included, “Games cannot be used solely in place of lecture and preparation on the parts of the instructor and students. A solid grounding in the material must be set” and “Students can easily get carried away with the game and loose sight of its purpose. May be difficult to control the classroom and keep everyone on task.”

Question 4: Do you have other thoughts about gaming as a classroom tool?

Both pre- and in- service teachers indicated that games are fun, motivating, and the future.  Sample pre-service responses include, “Gaming is good and can make students want to be in class and want to learn. And any time you have a student saying ’I can’t wait to go back to school or class’ is a good thing!” and “Classroom gaming rocks!” Sample in-service responses include, “It is here and is the future and we must adapt” and “Anything that motivates learners is the way to go and gaming is a perfect example of bringing learning and fun together.”

Discussion and Conclusion

The video game industry is currently growing by tremendous proportions (Nawaz, 2009). Similarly, the use of games as training and learning tools is increasing at a rapid rate. Games are no longer played just 'for fun', rather, they are seen as learning tools that can capture students' interest and keep their attention. Prior research has shown that games support learning and increase student motivation, however, scant research has examined how teachers perceive these games. As a result, this study sought to examine how games were being perceived by both pre- and in-service teachers.

Findings from this study confirmed results from prior research (Can and Cagiltay, 2006) and revealed that teachers are using games in the classroom and see them being implemented more in the near future. This finding was not surprising considering the large volume of game sales and number of schools pushing technology use in the classroom.  Thus, as the gaming industry continues to grow, the use of games in education will follow. Furthermore, as the cost of development decreases and demand increases, there will be more customizable games available, which could cover more content areas to meet state and national scholastic standards.

Participants indicated that gaming was a good use of technology for enhancing and motivating students during the learning process. Similar findings were uncovered by Ke (2008), who found that gaming enhanced students' motivation and attitude towards math education. As a result, utilizing games in the classroom may increase motivation and might be best used in subjects that students often do not have motivation to perform well in or with students who lack motivation.

From a design standpoint, the participants of this study felt that games should address learning styles, must be user-friendly, should address high level learning rather than factual recall, and should involve teamwork. Munoz-Rosario and Widmeyer (2008) uncovered similar findings in their study which found that games must be easy to use and should address high level learning in order to be successful. As a result, common classroom games should focus on high level learning. Many times simple games, such as Jeopardy in PowerPoint, only address factual information. These games need to be developed to address higher levels of learning. Additionally, computer-based games should be easy to use. Simple classroom games are usually very easy to use. However, many current games on video game systems have a high learning curve. These types of games may not be appropriate in learning settings where class time is an issue and may exhaust students' cognitive resources on game play rather than learning. Thus, teachers trying to implement console games into the classroom should first consider the resources needed to play the game.

Only around half of the participants surveyed felt that they have or intend to use gaming in their teaching. However, the majority felt that gaming is a valuable use of instructional time. Thus, there are educators that do not plan to use games for classroom use. Participants indicated that games could be distracting and that they should not replace lectures. If students are too distracted and excited to use games in the classroom the learning value may be diminished. Additionally, games should not be designed to replace lectures or education practices that are successful. Rather, they should be used to enhance the learning process (Pivec, Dziabenko, and Schinnerl, 2003). Future studies should examine this further to discover what barriers teachers face when trying to implement games into their class environment. Nevertheless, its important to note that both the pre- and in-service teachers felt that gaming in the classroom will grow in the next 5 years. This indicates that while not all participants intend to use games, a majority see them being utilized more often in the next several years within schools.

The rise of simple computer-based games has grown in use because game programming is becoming easier and demand has increased.  The trend for easy development will help get educators who are not computer experts to feel comfortable using technology in their classroom and to create their own games.  As this trend of easy development is combined with a broader understanding of how games can help teaching and learning, the use of computer-based games in classrooms will likely grow. If these tools are to live up to their promises to improve teaching and learning, we must strive to understand the ways that designing and using them impacts quality teaching and learning in schools.

Future research on gaming in the classroom should focus on case studies where teachers are implementing games in classroom settings. This would help determine barriers, pitfalls, and successes. Since game research is usually technology specific (each game can be very different), research should focus on implementation, use, and design guidelines common to most educational games. This would help educators who are considering implementing this technology and ensure that they can use it successfully.

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About the Authors

Raymond S. Pastore Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. He has ten years of instructional design and technology experience. His research focuses on multiple representations, computer-based tools, gaming, and metacognitive strategies that support learning from a multimedia environment. He recently earned his Ph.D. in Instructional Systems from Penn State University and is currently an Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.

Email: rayme.pastore@gmail.com   Website: http://raypastore.com

David A. Falvo Ed.D. is an Associate Professor of Educational Technology at Delaware State University in Dover, DE.. He served as key personnel on an NSF grant studying the use of animations for teaching chemistry, and on a major grant from the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Indian Education. His research interests include online learning systems (designs and tools), interface usability, collaborative learning, and teacher professional development.

Email: dfalvo@desu.edu