Pedagogy Considerations for E-learning

Table 3

Development Phase

 Legend:
Ť: Main Task to be performed by the content developer
Ŧ: Sub-task to be performed by the content developer
Ă: Task that is automatically performed by system without the need for human intervention

Due to length constraints, this paper will only focus on the pedagogy considerations of e-learning. Specifically, the instructional strategies (micro-level), learning events classification (macro-level) and scaffolding framework will be discussed.

Table 4

Implementation Phase

 
Table 5

Evaluation Phase

Instructional Strategies (micro-level)

Instructional strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Instructional methods are often used by teachers to create the learning environment and to specify the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson.

Instructional materials that have been effectively designed with sound instructional strategy will facilitate the desired learning outcomes for the students, enabling them to acquire higher order skills to be able to think and apply what they have learned in a different context. E-learning materials belong to this category of instructional materials. However, e-learning programs can, but do not always, deliver improved learning outcomes. This is due mainly to the fact that the current instructional strategy for e-learning, if any, is often adopted from traditional instructional strategy where face-to-face communication is assumed. It is advocated that in the absence or reduction in face-to-face communication, effective design of the e-learning materials has to rely on improved instructional design processes to reflect and replicate the real time interaction. Also, the online learning materials need to be structured in a way such that it can communicate the knowledge in ways that enable students with diverse learning styles to understand and apply the knowledge that has been learned.

Traditional instructional strategy is concerned about how the learners are going to learn and chart their personalized routes to achieve their learning objectives. However, it goes beyond the basics of content sequencing or simple course structure generation. It is concerned with how the learners will interact and learn from the instructional content. When traditional instructional strategy is used in the context of e-learning, additional conditions must be considered to take into account those considerations that are traditionally deferred when face-to-face delivery is assumed.

Two forms of instructional strategies will be employed: essential activities (4T) and learning event classification considerations.

The essential activities (4T) are centered on 3 main concepts: (1) identification of goals, (2) identification of critical factors required to achieve the goals and (3) determination of how achievement can be measured. In order to achieve these three main concepts, a total of four activities must be performed.

Learning event classification will be carried out once the essential activities have been performed. The learning event classification is important as different learning events must be designed with different teaching and scaffolding methods.

Additional key issues to consider:

1. Learners’ learning preferences

2. Nature of knowledge delivered

3. Learning outcomes and learning/performance objectives

4. Prerequisites knowledge

5. Scaffolding
    

4-Ts of a learning session: Target, Training, Transfer, Transformation

1. Target

-          Identify the governing motivation underlying the need for training

• Educational-centric: educate/inform

• Performance-centric: Specific skills acquisition

-          Identify the entrance pre-requisite list

-          Identify the non-coverage (exclude) list

2. Training

-          Activation of prior knowledge

-          Identify the nature of the Training Tasks

• Collaborative / Individualistic

• Analytical / Passive

• Divergence / Convergence

• Discussion / Questioning

• Project / Assignment

• Demonstration / Practice

• Lecture / Case Study / Role Playing

-          Identify the Training Materials

§         Main subject matter – purely on textual content

§         Supplementary subject matter – purely on textual content

§         Subject matter presentation

        Learning styles

        Cognitive level

        Interactive multimedia

-          Identify the Training Support

• Subject Matter Sequencing

        Chronological

        Cognitive level

        Knowledge Gap (only if profile of learner is available)

        Taxonomic (based on structure)

        Problem / Case study-centric

• Scaffolding Means

• Degree of Abstraction

• Degree of Complexity

• Degree of student independence

• Pace of learning

2. Transfer

-          Pre-assessment

-          Practice

-          Post-assessment

-          Remediation

-          Enhancement – introduction to next level of understanding

4. Transformation

-          Assess the accountability of the teaching

-          Feedbacks – both learners and teachers

          Revision

Target

The target (goal) identification is conducted at the conception of a new course. It is situated at the heart of the pre-instructional activities. The learning target identification is important because human being have a built-in goal seeking "success mechanism" that is part of the subconscious mind (Maltz, 2002). This success mechanism is constantly searching for ways to help us reach our targets and find answers to our problems. According to Maltz, we work and feel better when our success mechanism is fully engaged going after clear targets. Besides, setting the learning target also helps to concentrate the time, effort, establish priorities, and provide a development roadmap for the learning materials. Thus, the target phase explicitly marks the generating of the governing motivation underlying the need for training. It also states the essential questions that must be thoroughly examined before the commencement of the course design. This includes defining the essential entrance criteria as well as the list of non-coverage.

In the subject matter expert’s (SME) perspective, the most important step in any learning event is to focus on guiding learners to understand the main learning concept. Depending on the type of learning outcomes that are desired, different teaching styles and hence, their appropriate learning (teaching) event must be adopted. Therefore, the first step in any instructional strategy is to state clearly the underlying motivation behind the learning event. The motivation can be categorized under two teaching perspectives: educational-centric or performance-centric.

The main purpose in an educational-centric learning event is to educate or inform. Its sole purpose is to augment knowledge and is inclined towards imparting theoretical and abstract concepts. This mode of learning is extremely beneficial in conveying paradigms of thinking and information. The application of knowledge and the development of communication skills are however secondary. Such learning events are characterized by learning contents that are hierarchically organized and aim to guide the learning process through structured syllabi and tests. The training is usually housed in a certain context but the students are assessed both inside and outside the arena in which they hope to minister. Upon the completion of the training, the newly acquired expertise which attests to the level of training will be recorded in learner’s cognitive map.

Performance-centric learning event on the other hand looks at the practical usage of the knowledge. It focuses more on the application of the knowledge rather than its fundamentals. This mode of training is based on the premise that students learn most effectively through experiences and practice in a deliberately organized program. It uses real life examples as the basis for purposeful training. Such a mode of learning is highly relational yet unstructured in the sense that training is focused on the working towards problem solving and the teaching materials are structured outside the normal school curriculum. The student has complete control over his learning and this mode is participatory in nature.

The formulation of the learning/performance objective together with the non-coverage list is a key aspect of the instructional strategy that caters to the learner-centric aspect of e-learning. Learning/performance goal and the non-coverage list states, in a less formal terms (so that the learners can understand), of what is or not required of the learners during the learning event. This is essential as the learners need to be informed of what is going to happen during the learning event so they can focus and determine what is relevant to them and what is not.

The entrance pre-requisite list sets the context and some essential pre-requisites. This list connects the learners with the training tasks and aids the learners to house the new information into a context based on what they should already know. This list sets the foundation on which the present learning concept will build. This step is necessary to aid synthesis of knowledge.

Training

With the target set, the attention now falls on the instruction set. However, before any content deliberation, in a learner-centric learning environment, it is crucial to invite the learners to clarify where they stand, at present, in terms of the new content. The prior knowledge activation task is important. Many prior studies have demonstrated the importance of informal and formal prior knowledge (see Dochy, 1992). Essentially, prior knowledge activation sets the stage for learning by sharpening the perception of the learner. It tells the learner not only what s/he has to learn but also what the person perceives s/he already knows. Sometimes this is a rude awakening, sometimes a corroborating experience. The result of such reflection when compared with the system record of the learner’s past expertise can aid in the identification of the appropriate starting point of his learning route. The activation of prior knowledge is applied for learning preparation. It is used to connect the new with existing knowledge; to synthesize prior knowledge with the new content. Hence, the main design consideration of this part is to effectively plan the querying methods to accurately retrieve the learner’s prior knowledge and investigate how to connect the learner’s prior knowledge to the new content.

Once the prior knowledge correlation is achieved, then training can begin. The training development plan is sub-divided into three phases: Training Tasks, Training Materials and Training Support.

Training Tasks identify the nature of the content presentation. The training task defines the way to structure the training. Depending on the type of learning event, different training tasks are used to create and ensure engagement of the learners with the new content. Structuring the nature of the training task is one way to effective teaching as it dictates and creates a consistent overall design for the training. The teaching challenge here is not to present the training materials as static content but as an integral part of a dynamic learning process where the learners have to work over, contest, digest and recreate the new information to fit into their cognitive structure. Instead of receiving information, the aim here is to turn the learning process around and offer an opportunity for students to construct their own knowledge.

Training Materials identify the type of content. It is important to note that no form of content presentation, formatting or delivery medium is taken into consideration in this phase. While SME has to deliberate over the learning styles, cognitive level and interactive multimedia for the learning content, it is the pedagogic issue that is of concern, not the technological or delivery aspects. The entire content structure need not be formulated here, only the key concepts and their associated teaching methods.

Training Support is to ensure that the learners get the most out of training materials. Depending on the nature of the teaching tasks and the type of learners, different supports such as sequencing, pacing, scaffolding, complexity, and abstraction level will be employed.

Transfer

The transfer of learning is perhaps the most important aspect of learning. Transfer of learning is the application of skills and knowledge learned in one context to another context (Cormier & Hagman, 1987). The transfer of learning is important as the learning context is often different from the context of application. Hence, the goal of learning is never accomplished unless transfer occurs. Successful transfer of learning requires that training content be relevant to the task, that the learner must learn the training content, and that the learner must be motivated.

The triggering of knowledge synthesis usually lies in the activation and application of the newly acquired knowledge. Such a knowledge transfer can occur in three ways: (1) from prior knowledge and skills to new learning, (2) from new knowledge and skills to new learning situations (learning now preparing for later learning), and (3) from new knowledge and skills to applications in work and daily life (learning for practice) (Simons, 1990). An example of category (1) transfer is a student from China who reads a document in English but uses the knowledge and skills from his native language (Chinese) to interpret the contents. An example of category (2) transfer is a student who is learning the concept of differential equation but knows that he has to master the concept of stability later (the concept of differential equation is an essential pre-requisite to the learning of the concept of stability). An example of category (3) transfer is a student from China who learns to speak English in the lesson, knowing that he has to perform it in real-life context when he speaks to his professors. The transfer of knowledge can also be classified under near or far transfer. In near transfer there is a close connection between the learning situation (or the prior knowledge) and the application (or the new learning situation). In far transfer the distance between prior knowledge or learning and application (or the second learning situation) is much greater (see Mayer & Greeno, 1972). These modes of knowledge transfer will be catered for at the macro-level of the instructional strategies.

In general, in order to demonstrate that learning has taken place, practice and assessment are included in the transfer of learning. However, it is important not to confuse practice with assessment. Learners at the practice stage are still learning; they are not being assessed. There are many different learning strategies for demonstrating understanding of the course ranging from requiring the learners to compare, classify, induce, deduce, analyze, construct or to make abstraction of the new acquired knowledge. Typical activities include open-ended questions, summaries, research, quizzes, and assignments.

While both practice and assessment are classified under the transfer of learning, the assessment of learning forms the evaluation portion of the learning event and must be based on a well devised methodology to determine if the e-learning event has been successful and learning has taken place. If the learners did not achieve the required understanding of the subject matter, sufficient scaffolding should be incorporated. Beyond the application consortium of practice and assessment is the higher level of understanding: remediation and enhancement.

Remediation is the application of the newly acquired knowledge in an entirely new situation. This gives the learners an opportunity to transfer what they have learned to other situations and use it in different ways. Collaborative learning is one good method to ensure that learners apply what they have learned to new situations. Lastly, the enhancement aspect of application of learning can bring learners to another cognitive level. It introduces ‘post-requisites’ concepts and broadens the scope of understanding.

Transformation

Transformation is the final phase that assesses the change in one’s approach that is brought through by the training and transfer. It sets the accountability of the training process and is also the channel through which the learning content is enhanced and revised by appropriate reviews and feedbacks. Feedback and comments may be in the form of electronic surveys or direct feedback from the teachers or learners.

Transformation differs from transfer in the sense that transfer of knowledge is more of an application of the knowledge but transformation is set at a higher level as it looks at the behavioral change that is brought about by the new training.

Context-Dependent Classification of Learning Events (macro-level)

The micro-level of instructional strategy prescribes four essential activities that must be performed. However, at the macro-level, different strategies should be employed according to the context-dependent learning events involved. For example, when courses to be taught require only straight-forward knowledge impartation (i.e. rote learning where memorization is a key necessity for learning), the teaching strategy is usually centered on the use of the storage-retrieval of the knowledge process. However, for courses that teach problem solving, this does not usually involve the gathering of new knowledge but may involve teaching strategies that help the student in the reorganization of their cognitive data or remembering how to deduce or apply knowledge to achieve required solutions.

Hence, different sets of guidelines should be provided for the different classifications of the learning events. These learning events are classified based on their ability to promote the transfer of knowledge. While the learning events are set in various settings, it is important that all these learning events must start from the learner’s perspective (Simons, 1999). The learning events also take into account the target audience (conducted under the Analysis Phase: Learner Profile Analysis) by adopting the research findings from Simons’ Transfer of Learning (Simons, 1999). i.e. for young students, design learning materials so that students apply their prior knowledge more actively, overcome some of their pre-conceptions and learn on their own (see scaffolding section); for adults, design the learning materials through embedding a learning-to-learn approach into their regular training so that they learn how to transfer their knowledge and skills.

With the abovementioned research findings in mind, the learning events can be classified under two main categories: educational learning events (What-is learning) and performance learning events (How-to learning).

Educational Learning Events

Educational learning events are typically theoretical in nature and cover all fundamental learning theories and concepts such as facts, laws and principles. They must be delivered at the outset of the lesson and form a bulk portion of the learner’s initial academic learning phase. It is characterized typically by knowledge impartation (from teacher) – cognitive awareness (student) – and cognitive reorganization (student).

1.      Factual Learning

Factual learning events are characterized by learning materials that are presented as a hierarchy of topics. One topic is set as the main topic and all the other topics are termed as the sub-topics. These sub-topics are either pre- or post-requisites concepts of the main topic and must bring the learner towards comprehending the main topic. Learning is structured, logically and usually sequenced in a linear fashion where there is an explicit assignment of topics as the entrance and termination learning points. Learning always proceeds from the known to the unknown and is directed by the teacher. It involves directing the student attention towards specific learning (main topic) in a highly structured learning environment (main topic – sub topics interlinkage). The topics and contents are usually broken down into small modules, taught and assessed individually through the usage of explanation, demonstration and practice. The attention of students is important and listening and observation is the key to success in this phase.

2.      Conceptual Learning

Conceptual learning events are characterized by learning materials that can be presented as verbal, written summary, outline of a topic or visually as a set of concept maps. It can exist as a new concept or tied to a factual learning concept (either at the beginning of the unit, or module).

While conceptual learning is also centered on a main topic, the main learning objective is not to master the main topic but to present the big picture that houses the main topic. Gaining an overview of how the new concept is related to other concepts is another form of learning. Besides mastering the fundamental theories underlying a particular concept, the ability to link and synthesize new knowledge into one’s existing cognitive structure is another complex learning process that requires supervision. In addition, connecting new ideas to information students already understand makes it easier to retain.

The topics that are presented in the map need not be pre- or post-requisites concepts of the main topic. Instead, these topics can be stand-alone main topics by themselves that aim to portray the association between themselves and the main topic.

Learning in conceptual learning events is usually unstructured in the sense that the learners are allowed to explore relevant information in a manner that is comfortable for them. This form of learning is something like learning from the Web where learners can follow any relevant keywords or concepts to look up a topic. Conceptual learning allows the learners to explore any concept quickly and easily and to also see how this topic is related to other concepts. Conceptual learning typically distills difficult or complex concepts through the use of a simpler definition or example before showing how such a concept relates to other information. It emphasizes the learning process of ‘cognitive reorganization’ to make a concept meaningful.

3.      Supervised Learning

Supervised learning events are characterized by a substantial amount of teacher/agent help. In this kind of learning event, the learners undertake various tasks with the help of a mentor. Help can take the form of direction intervention to scaffolding to learning hints.

While complex tasks form the bulk of supervised learning events, supervised learning events need not be fully characterized by the nature of complexity. Tasks/theories that are ambiguous, subjective or open-ended in nature can also benefit from having a mentor’s supervision. The structure of supervised learning events will vary depending on the type and intensity of supervision being employed.

It is important to note that this type of learning event should only be used when needed, so as not to make the learners over reliant on the mentors’ help.

Performance Learning Events

The performance learning events, in contrast to educational learning events, take a more practical approach to learning and typically cover handy skills that are required to perform specific tasks. It moves from the concept of the learner as a student to one of the learner as a professional who needs to gain and apply the knowledge so as to contribute to his field. Such learning modes usually rely on authentic and diverse real life problem-based examples. It focuses on helping the students to link and interconnect their learning. Opportunities are provided by such events to break away from the compartmentalization of knowledge and skills and to help students to construct a better network of knowledge and skills. Furthermore, such learning events are an authentic form of learning that prepares students for the increasing demands of the workplace (Kwok & Tan, 2004).

Performance learning events, when used in a corporate context, is like on-demand training (the latest trend in e-learning). Companies using e-learning technologies have found that long lectures do not cut it online. Short, targeted learning segments with simulation or how-to scenarios let employees take classes when they have time or when they need the help. It is far less disruptive than taking week-long seminars. When the learning events are housed in an academic context, it is similar to project-based learning which is action-oriented and focuses on doing something rather than learning about something (Moursund, 1999). However, project-based learning while important has many practical issues (i.e. too much work to prepare, difficult to assess, learning outcomes undetermined, difficult to assess if learning takes place, no in-process feedback, cannot monitor and facilitate progress, etc.) that cause great difficulties in realizing the goals of project-based learning (Kwok & Tan, 2004). Hence, we feel that the coverage of project-based learning is too broad and undefined. We advocated that through the proper classification of such project-based learning into performance learning events, we can divide and simplify the complex cognitive and meta-cognitive process while maintaining the learning outcome. Also, through the usage of computing resources, many taxing (preparation works, grading of reports, progress tracking and monitoring of students) and ambiguous tasks (assessment criteria, learning outcome formulation) can be programmed.

1.      Guideline

Guideline learning events are characterized by learning events that are generally more process and procedure oriented. It typically teaches a flow of events that describe how something works. This set of guidelines is applicable in all scenarios and minimum or no interpretation on the part of the learner is required. Although the tasks undertaken are the same, learners have to been trained to understand what and why such actions are undertaken and how to apply troubleshooting techniques.

The most difficult aspect of such learning events is to generate interest in the learner because such learning events are typically less intellectually stimulating.

2.      Reference

A reference learning event is one that is similar to the guideline learning event. However, as opposed to the guideline learning event where the process or procedure can be replicated in all situations, a reference learning event is one that requires sound judgment on the part of the learner. While a reference learning event contains the necessary information on a particular problem domain, some discretion must be exercised when devising a solution to the problem.

3.      Troubleshooting

A troubleshooting learning event is the most common type of informal learning where the learning event consists of a set of questions representing common problems. Instead of presenting the theory underlying the problems, the set of possible actions to the problem is presented in a form of a decision matrix. The possible scenario that will occur as a result of the action selection will be presented. From the set of actions taken, the learner is indirectly revealing his understanding of the problem. Thus, this type of learning event is an effective way of identifying the learner’s mistakes and wrong understanding about certain concepts.

Scaffolding Framework

Scaffolding is touted as one effective instructional means to escalate one’s understanding from a novice viewpoint to that of an expert. Scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy originates from Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and his concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development is the Vygotskian concept that defines development as the space between the child’s level of independent performance and the child’s level of maximally assisted performance (Vygotsky, 1978; Bodrova & Leong, 1996). This concept of ZPD was later broadened by contemporary Vygotskian scholars to serve as a general metaphor for human development in a sociocultural context (e.g. Newman & Holzman, 1993).

The term “scaffolding” was coined by Burner (Wood, Burner & Ross, 1976) to specify the types of assistances that make it possible for learners to function at higher level of their zones of proximal development. The term is often used to describe how an expert can facilitate the learner’s transition from assisted to independent performance (Berk & Winsler, 1995; Meyer, 1993). With adequate support, this novice to expert transformation (Quitana, 2004) can enable the student to create meaningful inferences from seemingly unrelated raw data. Following the guidance of the more knowledgeable expert, the student will become competent with academic tasks that are initially beyond their ability (Palincsar, 1998; Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). The more knowledgeable expert can also successfully diagnose the complex needs of students at various stages of the intended learning and employ proper instructional strategies adaptively to their progress (Tabak, 2004).

Scaffolding differs from other types of instructional strategies through the key characteristics of fading and student support.

Fading refers to the gradual reduction of support by the more knowledgeable agent in successful tutor-tutee (Wood et al., 1976), mother-child (Wertsch & Stone, 1985), teacher-student (Fleer, 1992; Flick, 2000) or expert-apprentice relationships (Brown et al., 1989). Scaffolding-minded learning meddling can incorporate fading either as an implicit part of student’s learning or as an explicit part of an active intervention strategy. While fading is an important aspect of scaffolding, the detailed mechanisms of fading in the scaffolding framework are not clearly understood (Stone, 1998).

Besides the basic teaching advantages that scaffolding brings, the unique characteristics of e-learning requires scaffolding teaching strategy to be selected as one essential component of e-learning pedagogy because of the following reasons:

1. Scaffolding can provide individualized support based on the learner’s ZPD (Chang, Sung & Chen, 2002). Individualized or personalized support is of utmost importance to e-learning and has been documented in our previous works on learning personalization and its importance (Teo & Gay, 2004a; 2005a; 2005b).

2. The scaffolds enable the facilitation of a student’s ability to build upon prior knowledge and to internalize new information (Van Der Stuyf, 2002). Prior knowledge activation has been highlighted in the earlier section (4-Ts of a learning session) as one of essential e-learning methods.

3. Fading can mimic the process of teacher-student interactivity. This is important because in traditional learning environment, the teacher is in constant communication with the students and thus, is sensitive to the progress of individual student. Hence, the teacher, equipped with ample knowledge of the student, can select the most effective fading mechanism for guiding different students to complete complex reasoning tasks. However, when learning is housed in an e-learning context, the luxury of face-to-face communication and real-time teacher-student assessment is no longer available. In the absence of teacher-student interactivity, it is important to address complex reasoning tasks early and incorporate this into the instructional design.

4. The scaffolds that usually consist of models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling, and direct instruction (Hartman, 2002) can be easily programmed and delivered over the network.

5. Noting Vygotsky’s view that learner does not learn in isolation (in fact, learning is strongly influenced by social interactions which take place in meaningful context) and the ironic fact that the ‘distance aspect’ of e-learning while transcending the boundaries of traditional learning, has minimized (or even eliminated) social interaction, scaffolded instructions, by its nature, can be designed to overcome this gap (Ngeow & Yoon, 2001).

6. Scaffolding inherent disadvantages (i.e. time consuming to develop supports and scaffolded lessons to meet the needs of individual, most teachers not properly trained to implement scaffolding instructions, most teachers are not trained or comfortable to give up some of their control and allow the students to make errors and traditional teacher’s education does not teach scaffolding as a teaching strategy) as pointed out in (Van Der Stuyf, 2002) can be easily solved through the usage of e-learning technology. For example, once characteristic of e-learning material is reusability. The scaffolds can be developed once and reused or repurposed many times. Hence, the scaffolding development process can no longer be considered time–consuming as the return in investment (ROI) is manifold. Also, the teacher’s inexperience and reluctance to build scaffolds can be minimized or even solved through the semi-automation of the development process and the incorporation of a scaffolding guide.

Hence, in view of the numerous advantages that scaffolding can bring to e-learning, this research proposes an instructional design approach to investigate a fading approach that enables the curricular materials to fade scaffolds systematically based on the diagnosis of student progress.

Scaffolding Principles:

Scaffolding principles that originate from (McKenzie, 1999) are modified to suit the e-learning context. Also, some activities and tasks proposed by (Ellis et al., no date) have been incorporated into the scaffolding framework.

§         Begin with what the students can do

It is important to start the course with something that the learner can associate with. Activation of one’s prior knowledge is one excellent introduction to the lesson as it allows the learner to be aware of his strengths and to feel good about what he can achieve without help.

§         Clarify learners’ current knowledge point

This invites learners to clarify where they are in terms of new concepts they desire to master. This is used in combination with the “begin with what the students can do” principle to set the stage for scaffolding.

§         Begin with small, simple granular tasks

Small, simple granular tasks should be used at the beginning of the course. Although the learner needs challenging work in order to learn, frustration and loss of focus will set in when s/he experiences a constant cycle of failure. Hence, it is important for the learner to experience constant success and a sense of fulfillment and confidence before s/he embarks on larger, more complex and challenging tasks. As the learners’ mastery increased, the granularity and complexity of the tasks should increase progressively.

§         Frequent Assessment

It is important to know when is the time to stop. Scaffolding is important to help the learner perform certain tasks but too much might impede learning and create over-reliance. In a traditional learning environment, the teachers needs to watch for clues from the student that show when and how much teacher’s assistance is needed. In the context of e-learning, frequent assessment of the learner’s progress is used in place of the teacher’s judgment. Scaffolding support needs to be removed gradually as the learner demonstrates mastery. Support will be totally removed when the learner is able to perform the tasks independently.

§         Engagement of student with his learning

The learner will become more motivated and invested in the learning progress when he is able to dictate and plan his instructional goals and learning route. To help the learner monitor his own progress, the teacher must assign constant checkpoint and guidelines such that the system can automatically summarize the learner’s progress and explicitly note and record behaviors that contributed to the learner’s success or failure.

§         Use scaffolding only when appropriate

Not all tasks, be it complex or large, need to be scaffolded. Llearners learn differently, hence, not all the learners need scaffolding. A survey of learning needs and preferences should be conducted.

§         Practice generating more than one possible prompt

The first prompt or hint that the learner received may fail. Therefore, more than one prompt or hint using different methods or cues is needed to generate the appropriate response. Typical tailored assistance includes cueing, prompting, questioning, modeling, explicit message box, mandatory discussion and request clarification. The teacher must devise teaching methods and plans to ‘advise’ the agent when to use them  and how to adjust them to meet the learner’s needs.

Justification of Scaffolding Assessment Level Category:

1. Support /Coverage

This is inline with the scaffolding principles of fading.

2. Direction (Grouping)

Grouping of learners as the scaffolds reduce is of utmost importance as an essential element of scaffolding is that the participants must be in social interaction whereby they negotiate or compromise by constantly striving for a shared view of the situation (Berk & Winsler, 1995). Following the use of teacher provided scaffolds (level 1), level 2 introduces the usage of grouping to allow the students to ask and answer questions. In this type of learning environment, students help students in a small group setting but still have some teacher assistance. This is an essential step in the process of decreasing the scaffolds provided by the teacher and is needed by the students (Hartman, 2002). Lastly, level 3 removes the group / peer support to let the student assumes full control and the problem-solving capabilities, knowledge and responsibility can be said to be transferred from the teacher to the self (Berk & Winsler, 1995).

3. Granularity

Supply learners with appropriate learning materials. In starting small, teachers relate how ‘calling it as they see it’ was very effective (Kearn, 2000).

Table 6

Scaffolding Framework

Table 7

Scaffolding Assessment Level

Conclusion

In this paper, a practical, novel content development methodology for crafting and assembling of e-learning content is presented. In contrast to most e-learning content assembling systems that is centered on the ‘technical aspects’ (delivery and presentation of learning resources) and treats students as the object of curriculum implementation, the proposed methodology is based on the science of teaching to incorporate the correct use of teaching strategies. Through incorporation of such pedagogy considerations early in the content design, it is advocated that such enhanced content should have a positive effect on the learner’s motivation and learning performance.

Existing research work is extending content development methodology to include the concept of metacognition. The term metacognition refers to a body of knowledge that reflects on knowledge itself. It’s concept of creating awareness of mental processes and strategies is similar to the proposed prior knowledge activation (as discussed under the training aspect of the 4-Ts). However, initial research shows that the concept of metacognition is able to provide new insights into the domain of cognitive functioning and has caused researchers’ and academics’ conceptualization of pedagogy to changed in tandem to their understanding of cognition and meta-cognition (Watkins and Mortimore; 1999). Hence, research into its relevancy and possible inclusion to the field of e-learning will be conducted.
 

References

Becta (2002) Young People's Use of ICT (Coventry, Becta).

Berk, L. E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. NAEYC Research and Practice Series, 7. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early

childhood education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Carr, M., McGee, C., Jones, A., McKinley, E., Bell, B., Barr, H. and Simpson, T. (2000). Strategic research: initiative literature review: the effects of curricula and assessment on pedagogical approaches and on Educational Outcomes. Wellington, Ministry of Education.

Chang, K., Chen, I., & Sung, Y. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education 71(1), 5-23.

Chao Boon Teo, Robert, Kheng Leng Gay (2004a). Concept Map Approach to E-learning. World Conference on E-Learning in Corp., Govt., Health, & Higher Ed., Vol. 2004, Issue. 1, 2004, pp. 2160-2165

Chao Boon Teo, Robert Kheng Leng Gay (2004b). “Concept-Based System Design to Personalize E-learning,” WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 1248 – 1255, November 2004.

Chao Boon Teo, Robert Kheng Leng Gay (2005a). “Content Authoring System to Personalize E-Learning,” Proceedings of the 5th WSEAS Int. Conf. on DISTANCE LEARNING AND WEB ENGINEERING, Corfu, Greece, August 23-25, 2005 (pp105-110)

Chao Boon Teo, Robert Kheng Leng Gay (2005b). “Personalization Issues in E-Learning,” WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications, Issue 10, Volume 2, , ISSN 1790-0832, pp. 1514 – 1522, October 2005.

Cormier, S. M., & Hagman, J. D. (1987). Introduction. In S. M. Cormier & J. D. Hagman Transfer of learning; contemporary research and applications (pp. 1}8). San Diego: Academic Press.

Cuban, L. (2001) Oversold and Underused: Computers in the Classroom (Cambridge, Harvard University Press).

Dochy, F. J. R. C. (1992). Assessment of prior knowledge as a determinant for future learning. Doctoral Dissertation. Heerlen: Open University.

Ellis, E., Larkin, M ., & Worthington, L. (No date). Executive summary of the research synthesis on effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. University of Alabama, AL.

Fleer, M. (1992). Identifying teacher-child interaction which scaffolds scientific thinking in young children. Science Education, 76(4), 373-397.

Flick, L. B. (2000). Cognitive scaffolding that fosters scientific inquiry in middle level science. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(2), 109-219.

Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding & Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69). New York: City College of City University of New York.

Hennessy, S., Ruthven, K. & Brindley, S. (2005). Teacher perspectives on integrating ICT into subject teaching: commitment, constraints, caution, and change. Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 37 (2), 155-192.

Kearn C. M. (2000). Affecting the Future: The Role of. Appropriate Scaffolding in the. Development of Social Competence. In Dianne Rothenberg, Ed. 2002. Issues in Early Childhood Education: Curriculum, Teacher Education, & Dissemination of Information. Proceedings of the Lilian Katz Symposium, November 5-7, 2000

Kerr, S.T. (1991) Lever and fulcrum: educational technology in teachers' thought and practice, Teachers College Record, 93(1), pp. 114-136.

Kwok L.Y., Tan Y. G. (2004). Scaffolding Supports in Project-based Learning through Knowledge Community (KC): collaborative learning strategies and pedagogical facilitation. 8^th GCCCE2004 Conference.

Kelly, A.E., (Ed.). (2003). Theme issue: The role of design in educational research. Educational Researcher, 32 (1).

Lynch, O. (2001) Welcome SpeechBuilding an ICT Research Network: Helping to Create Schools of the Future (Barbican Centre, London, Becta).

Maltz, Maxwell (2001) New Psycho-Cybernetics. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-7352-0275-3

Mayer, R., & Greeno, J. G. (1972). Structural di!erences between learning outcomes produced by different instructional methods. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 165-173.

McKenzie, J. (1999). Scaffolding for Success. Beyond Technology, Questioning, Research and the Information Literate School Community.

Meyer, D. K. (1993). What is scaffolded instruction? Definitions, distinguishing features, and misnomers. In D. J. Leu & C. K. Kinzer, (Eds.), Examining central issues in literacy research, theory, and practice (pp. 41-53). Chicago: The National Reading Conference.

Moursund, D. (1999). Project-based learning using IT. Eugene, Or. : International Society for Technology in Education.

Ngeow, K.K., & Yoon, S. (2001). Learning to learn: preparing teachers and students for problem-based learning. ERIC Digest.

Newman, F., & Holzman, L. (1993). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist. New York: Routledge.

Newton, L.R. & Rogers, L. (2001) Teaching Science with ICT (London, Continuum).

Ofsted (1999) Standards in the Secondary Curriculum 1997/98: Information Technology(London, Office for Standards in Education).

Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 345-375.

Quitana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G., Kyza, E., Edelson, D. C., & Soloway, E. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 337-386.

Rowan, B., Schilling, S. G., Ball, D. L. and Miller, R. (2001), Measuring Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Surveys: An Exploratory Study. Consortium for Policy Research in Education, Study of Instructional Improvement, Research Note S-2. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

Simons, P. R. J. (1990). Transfervermogen. [Transfer-ability] Inaugural lecture. Nijmegen: Quick Print.

Simons, P.R.J. (1999). Transfer of learning: paradoxes for learners. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 577-589. 

Stone, C. A. (1998). The metaphor of scaffolding: Its utility for the field of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(4), 344-364.

Tabak, I. (2004). Synergy: A complement to emerging patterns of distributed scaffolding. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 305-335.

Van Der Stuyf, R. (2002). Scaffolding as a teaching strategy. Adolescent Learning and Development. Section 0500A.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published in 1930, 1933, 1935).

Watkins, C. and Mortimore, P. (1999), Pedagogy: what do we know? in Mortimore, P. (Ed.) Understanding Pedagogy and its Impact on Learning. London: Chapman.

Wertsch, J. V., & Stone, C. A. (1985). The concept of internalization in Vygotsky's account of the genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 162-179). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Wilson B.G. (2005). Theory and method as tools: reflections on research on the pedagogical uses of ICT in education. Computers in Human Behavior 21 (2005) pp. 541–546.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89-100.

About the Authors